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Iris Publishers - Global Journal of Engineering Sciences (GJES)

Artificial Neural Networks and Hopfield Type Modeling 

Authored by Haydar Akca

From the mathematical point of view, an artificial neural network corresponds to a non- linear transformation of some inputs into certain outputs. Many types of neural networks have been proposed and studied in the literature and the Hopfield-type network has be- come an important one due to its potential for applications in various fields of daily life.

A neural network is a network that performs computational tasks such as associative memory, pattern recognition, optimization, model identification, signal processing, etc. on a given pattern via interaction between a number of interconnected units characterized by simple functions. From the mathematical point of view, an artificial neural network corresponds to a nonlinear transformation of some inputs into certain outputs. There are a number of terminologies commonly used for describing neural networks. Neural networks can be characterized by an architecture or topology, node characteristics, and a learning mechanism [1]. The interconnection topology consists of a set of processing elements arranged in a particular fashion. The processing elements are connected by links and have weights associated with them. Each processing elements is associated with:

• A state of activation (state variable)

• An output function (transfer function)

• A propagation rule for transfer of activation between processing elements

• An activation rule, which determines the new state of activation of a processing element from its inputs weight associated with the inputs, and current activation.

Neural networks may also be classified based on the type of input, which is either binary or continuous valued, or whether the networks are trained with or without supervision. There are many different types of network structures, but the main types are feed-forward networks and recurrent networks. Feed-forward networks have unidirectional links, usually from input layers to output layers, and there are no cycles or feedback connections. In recurrent networks, links can form arbitrary topologies and there may be arbitrary feed- back connections. Recurrent neural networks have been very successful in time series prediction. Hopfield networks are a special case of recurrent networks. These networks have feedback connections, have no hidden layers, and the weight matrix is symmetric.

Neural networks are analytic techniques capable of predicting new observations from other observations after executing a process of so-called learning from existing data. Neural network techniques can also be used as a component of analysis designed to build explanatory models. Now there is neural network software that uses sophisticated algorithms directly contributing to the model building process.

In 1943, neuro physiologist Warren McCulloch and mathematician Walter Pitts [2] wrote a paper on how neurons might work. In order to describe how neurons in the brain might work, they modeled a simple neural network using electrical circuits. As computers be- came more advanced in the 1950’s, it was possible to simulate a hypothetical neural net- work. In 1982, John Hopfield presented a paper [3]. His approach was to create more useful machines by using bidirectional lines. The model proposed by Hopfield, also known as Hopfield’s graded response neural network, is based on an analogue circuit consisting of capacitors, resistors and amplifiers. Previously, the connections between neurons was only one way. At the same years, scientist introduced a “Hybrid network” with multiple layers, each layer using a different problem-solving strategy.

Now, neural networks are used in several applications. The fundamental idea behind the nature of neural networks is that if it works in nature, it must be able to work in computers. The future of neural networks, though, lies in the development of hardware. Research that concentrates on developing neural networks is relatively slow. Due to the limitations of processors, neural networks take weeks to learn. Nowadays trying to create what is called a “silicon compiler”, “organic compiler” to generate a specific type of integrated circuit that is optimized for the application of neural networks. Digital, analog, and optical chips are the different types of chips being developed.

The brain manages to perform extremely complex tasks. The brain is principally com- posed of about 10 billion neurons, each connected to about 10,000 other neurons. Each neuronal cell bodies (soma) are connect with the input and output channels (dendrites and axons). Each neuron receives electrochemical inputs from other neurons at the dendrites. If the sum of these electrical inputs is sufficiently powerful to activate the neuron, it transmits an electrochemical signal along the axon, and passes this signal to the other neurons whose dendrites are attached at any of the axon terminals. These attached neurons may then fire. It is important to note that a neuron fires only if the total signal received at the cell body exceeds a certain level. The neuron either fires or it doesn’t, there aren’t different grades of firing. So, our entire brain is composed of these interconnected electro- chemical transmitting neurons. This is the model on which artificial neural networks are based. Thus for, artificial neural networks haven’t even come close to modeling the complexity of the brain, but they have shown to be good at problems which are easy for a human but difficult for a traditional computer, such as image recognition and predictions based on past knowledge.

Fundamental difference between traditional computers and artificial neural networks is the way in which they function. One of the major advantages of the neural network is its ability to do many things at once. With traditional computers, processing is sequential– one task, then the next, then the next, and so on. While computers function logically with a set of rules and calculations, artificial neural networks can function via Equation, pictures, and concepts. Based upon the way they function, traditional computers have to learn by rules, while artificial neural networks learn by example, by doing something and then learning from it.

Hopfield neural networks have found applications in a broad range of disciplines [3-5] and have been studied both in the continuous and discrete time cases by many researchers. Most neural networks can be classified as either continuous or discrete. In spite of this broad classification, there are many real-world systems and natural processes that behave in a piecewise continuous style interlaced with instantaneous and abrupt changes (impulses). Periodic dynamics of the Hopfield neural networks is one of the realistic and attractive modellings for the researchers. Hopfield networks are a special case of recurrent networks. These networks have feedback connections, have no hidden layers, and the weight matrix is symmetric. These networks are most appropriate when the input can be represented in exact binary form. Signal transmission between the neurons causes time delays. Therefore, the dynamics of Hopfield neural networks with discrete or distributed delays has a fundamental concern. Many neural networks today use less than 100 neurons and only need occasional training. In these situations, software simulation is usually found sufficient. Expected and optimistic development on all current neural network’s technologies will improve in very near future and researchers develop better methods and network architectures.

In the present paper, we briefly summarized historical background as well as developments of the artificial neural networks and present recent formulations of the continuous and discrete counterpart of a class of Hopfield-type neural networks modeling using functional differential equations in the presence of delay, periodicity, impulses and finite distributed delays. Combining some ideas of [4,6-10] and [11], we obtain a sufficient condition for the existence and global exponential stability of a unique periodic solution of the discrete system considered.

Artificial Neural Networks (ANN)

An artificial neural network (ANN) is an information processing paradigm that is in- spired by the way biological nervous systems, such as the brain, process information sees more details [12] and references given therein. The key element of this paradigm is the novel structure of the information processing system. It is composed of a large number of highly interconnected processing elements (neurons) working in unison to solve specific problems. ANNs, like people, learn by example. An ANN is configured for a specific application, such as pattern recognition or data classification, through a learning process. Learning in biological systems involves adjustments to the synaptic connections that exist between the neurons. This is true of ANNs as well.

The first artificial neuron was produced in 1943 by the neurophysiologist Warren McCulloch and the logician Walter Pitts [2]. But the technology available at that time did not allow them to do too much. Neural networks process information in a similar way the human brain does. The network is composed of a large number of highly interconnected processing elements (neurons) working in parallel to solve a specific problem. Neural net- works learn by example. Much is still unknown about how the brain trains itself to process information, so theories abound. An artificial neuron is a device with many inputs and one output (Figure 1). The neuron has two modes of operation; the training mode and the using mode. In the training mode, the neuron can be trained to fire (or not), for particular input patterns. In the using mode, when a taught input pattern is detected at the input, its associated output becomes the current output. If the input pattern does not belong in the taught list of input patterns, the firing rule is used to determine whether to fire or not. An important application of neural networks is pattern recognition. Pattern recognition can be implemented by using a feed-forward (Figure 2) neural network that has been trained accordingly. During training, the network is trained to associate outputs with in- put patterns. When the network is used, it identifies the input pattern and tries to output the associated output pattern. The power of neural networks comes to life when a pattern that has no output associated with it, is given as an input. In this case, the network gives the output that corresponds to a taught input pattern that is least different from the given pat- tern. Hopfield-type neural networks are mainly applied either as associative memories or as optimization solvers. In both applications, the stability of the networks is prerequisite. The equilibrium points (stable states) of networks characterize all possible optimal solutions of the optimization problem, and stability of the network’s grantee the convergence to the optimal solutions. Therefore, the stability is fundamental for the network design. As a result of this fact the stability analysis of the Hopfield-type networks has received extensive attention from the many researchers, [4,6-9,11,13] and references given therein. The above neuron does not do anything that conventional computers do not already do. A more sophisticated neuron (Figure 3) is the McCulloch and Pitts model (MCP). The difference from the previous model is that the inputs are ‘weighted’, the effect that each input has at decision making is dependent on the weight of the particular input. The weight of an input is a number which when multiplied with the input gives the weighted input. These weighted inputs are then added together and if they exceed a pre-set threshold value, the neuron fires. In any other case the neuron does not fire. In mathematical terms, the neuron fires if and only if

X1W1 + X22 + X3W3 + …. > T,

where Wi, i = 1, 2, . . ., are weights, Xi, i = 1, 2, . . ., inputs, and T a threshold. The addition of input weights and of the threshold makes this neuron a very flexible and powerful one. The MCP neuron has the ability to adapt to a particular situation by changing its weights and/or threshold. Various algorithms exist that cause the neuron to ‘adapt’; the most used ones are the Delta rule and the back-error propagation. The former is used in feed-forward networks and the latter in feedback networks.

Neural networks have wide applicability to real world business problems. In fact, they have already been successfully applied in many industries. Since neural networks are best at identifying patterns or trends in data, they are well suited for prediction or forecasting needs including sales forecasting, industrial process control, customer research, data validation, risk management, target marketing.

ANN are also used in the following specific paradigms: recognition of speakers in communications; diagnosis of hepatitis; recovery of telecommunications from faulty software; interpretation of multi-meaning Chinese words; undersea mine detection; texture analysis; three-dimensional object recognition; hand-written word recognition; and facial recognition.

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Electrified Range Rovers plug into the South African model line-up

The new Range Rover and Range Rover Sport have taken major steps toward the future of motoring with the addition of plug-in hybrid (PHEV) drivetrain options, and both variants are now available in South Africa.

Both models are badged P400e in reference to their respective power outputs of 404PS (297kW), and both combine a 221kW 2.0-litre four-cylinder Ingenium petrol engine with an 85kW electric motor. With impressive 640Nm torque figures, the new drivetrains mix dynamic and sustainable performance with traditional Land Rover capability, comfort and refinement.

Each model’s 2.0-litre petrol engine is longitudinally mounted, with an 85kW electric motor housed within the ZF automatic eight-speed transmission at the centre of the vehicle, alongside a 7kW on-board charger. The access point for the charging cable is hidden at the front behind the grille badge of each vehicle. The prismatic cell lithium-ion batteries are mounted at the rear beneath the boot floor.

The powertrain’s precision and control make for serene progress in all conditions and across all terrains. Land Rover’s Terrain Response 2 technology has a unique calibration to intelligently and precisely distribute torque from the electric motor, which has no creep speed and is able to deliver maximum torque from zero rpm, to all four wheels. This gives greater control during low-speed off-road manoeuvres, confirming both Range Rover’s outstanding breadth of effortless capability.

Drivers can select from two driving modes to best suit their needs:

Parallel Hybrid mode (the default driving mode) – combines petrol and electric drive. The driver can optimise battery charge or fuel economy by utilising one of two charge management functions:

SAVE function – prevents the battery charge dropping below a pre-selected level.

Predictive Energy Optimisation (PEO) function – entering a destination in the navigation system enables the feature, which utilises built-in GPS altitude data for the selected route, to intelligently combine the electric motor and petrol engine to maximise fuel economy.

EV mode (Electric Vehicle) – enables the vehicle to run solely on the electric motor for up to 51km using the energy stored in the battery, the ideal solution for quiet, zero emission journeys.

When rapid charging the 13.1kWh high-voltage lithium-ion batteries, full charges can be achieved in as little as 2 hours 45 minutes at home using an optional 32 amp wall box. The batteries can be fully charged in 7 hours 30 minutes using the 10 amp home charging cable supplied as standard. The Range Rover and Range Rover Sport PHEVs’ batteries are covered by eight-year, 160,000km, 70 per cent state of health warranties.

Range Rover PHEV

Thanks to its electrified powertrain, the Range Rover P400e emits only 64g/km on the NEDC combined cycle and can accelerate from 0-100km/h in 6.8 seconds and on to a maximum speed of 220km/h.

The Range Rover P400e is available in both standard and long wheelbase body styles and has been enhanced with further technologies for greater comfort and convenience:

Gesture sunblind: opened and closed by an advanced gesture control system that senses an occupant’s hand movement. All it takes to open the blind is a rearward swipe in front of the rear-view mirror, and forwards to close

Air Cabin Ionisation: uses nano-sized charged water particles to cleanse and purify the air for enhanced passenger wellbeing

Pixel-laser LED headlights: advanced technology is brighter and yet intelligently blanks sections of LEDs to avoid dazzling oncoming drivers

Activity key: customers can securely lock and unlock their vehicle without the need to carry a conventional key fob

Comfort-enhancing functions transform the travelling experience for the driver and passengers. The front seats feature either 20 or 24-way movement thanks to the new seat frames, with wider and deeper foams as well as heated arm rests. In the rear a completely redesigned cabin and seating layout create a tranquil sanctuary with no compromise to the rear load space. For additional convenience and personalisation, all seat functionality can be controlled via a smartphone app, whether inside or outside the vehicle.

If you’re working while being driven, up to 17 connection points including domestic plug sockets, USB, and 12-volt are all available; 4G Wi-Fi hotspots for up to eight devices and convenient storage are all designed for the business traveller. The cabin is tailored for relaxation with luxurious seats offering 25 massage programmes thanks to Hot Stone massage technology within the seat backs.

The elegance of the interior has been elevated by the seamless integration of the most advanced infotainment system yet created by Jaguar Land Rover. Touch Pro Duo, codenamed ‘Blade’, combines two high-definition 10-inch touchscreens on the centre console working in perfect harmony. Information can be swiped from one screen to the other, making the layout highly intuitive and engaging to operate, with unrivalled functionality.

Range Rover Sport PHEV

The Range Rover Sport PHEV also emits only 64g/km on the NEDC combined cycle and achieves a top speed of 220km/h, but accelerates from 0-100km/h in a slightly quicker 6.7 seconds.

With significant changes under the skin, the exterior has evolved to harmonise and modernise the design, making the Range Rover Sport look more dynamic without changing its character. At the front, the striking new design is enabled by all-new LED headlights, sitting alongside a redesigned grille. This is complemented by a new bumper with a more aggressive profile.

In-car connectivity is enhanced with up to 14 power points, including a domestic plug socket to keep laptops and other devices topped up. The introduction of the Jaguar Land Rover Activity Key also brings new levels of convenience to the Range Rover Sport, allowing customers to lock and unlock their vehicle without the need to carry a key fob – ideal for outdoor pursuits.

Similarly to the flagship Range Rover, the Range Rover Sport also features the latest Touch Pro Duo infotainment system, Gesture sunblind and Pixel-laser LED headlights, but adds a new Advanced Tow Assist function to take care of the difficult counter-steering required to position trailers accurately when reversing. The driver can simply guide the trailer into the desired space using the rotary controller for the Terrain Response 2 system.

The Range Rover and Range Rover Sport PHEVs are available in South Africa priced from R2,207,300 and R1,639,300 respectively.

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